Paper 2025/055

Hash-Based Multi-Signatures for Post-Quantum Ethereum

Abstract

With the threat posed by quantum computers on the horizon, systems like Ethereum must transition to cryptographic primitives resistant to quantum attacks. One of the most critical of these primitives is the non-interactive multi-signature scheme used in Ethereum's proof-of-stake consensus, currently implemented with BLS signatures. This primitive enables validators to independently sign blocks, with their signatures then publicly aggregated into a compact aggregate signature. In this work, we introduce a family of hash-based signature schemes as post-quantum alternatives to BLS. We consider the folklore method of aggregating signatures via (hash-based) succinct arguments, and our work is focused on instantiating the underlying signature scheme. The proposed schemes are variants of the XMSS signature scheme, analyzed within a novel and unified framework. While being generic, this framework is designed to minimize security loss, facilitating efficient parameter selection. A key feature of our work is the avoidance of random oracles in the security proof. Instead, we define explicit standard model requirements for the underlying hash functions. This eliminates the paradox of simultaneously treating hash functions as random oracles and as explicit circuits for aggregation. Furthermore, this provides cryptanalysts with clearly defined targets for evaluating the security of hash functions. Finally, we provide recommendations for practical instantiations of hash functions and concrete parameter settings, supported by known and novel heuristic bounds on the standard model properties.